If you have been reading about somatotroph and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2026-07-08. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic peptide that belongs to the growth hormone-releasing hormone family and contains the same forty-four amino acid sequence as endogenous GHRH, extended at the amino terminus by a trans-3-hexenoyl group. That small fatty acid modification protects the peptide from rapid cleavage by dipeptidyl peptidase-4, the enzyme that shortens the half-life of native GHRH to only a few minutes. Chemically the compound is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis, purified by chromatography, and supplied as a sterile lyophilized powder for reconstitution.
Regulatory approval in the United States came in 2010, when the Food and Drug Administration cleared the peptide for the reduction of excess abdominal fat in adults with HIV infection and associated lipodystrophy. The decision rested mainly on two randomized phase 3 trials that enrolled roughly eight hundred patients and ran for twenty-six weeks. Participants receiving active drug showed substantially greater declines in visceral adipose tissue than those receiving placebo, while total body weight changed comparatively little. A reformulated presentation was later approved, and the product has remained a niche therapy rather than a general weight-loss agent.
Tesamorelin occupies a narrow position among agents that act on the growth hormone axis. Unlike growth hormone itself, which is given as replacement, it stimulates the pituitary to release the hormone in pulses, so the downstream increase in insulin-like growth factor 1 depends on intact somatotroph function. Other peptides in the same family include shorter GHRH fragments and synthetic secretagogues with different stability profiles. Several points remain unresolved, including whether the reduction in visceral fat translates into fewer cardiovascular events, what happens to metabolic markers after long-term use, and how the drug compares with lifestyle or surgical approaches.
Clinical interest in tesamorelin arose from the need to address visceral adiposity in people living with HIV. Antiretroviral therapy improved survival but was associated in some patients with central fat accumulation, altered lipid profiles, and metabolic complications. This condition, often called HIV-associated lipodystrophy, involves excess visceral adipose tissue that is difficult to manage through diet and exercise alone. Investigators evaluated tesamorelin because GHRH analogs can stimulate growth hormone secretion and influence fat distribution without direct liposuction or invasive procedures.
A Phase 3 program led to regulatory approval in the United States in 2010 for reduction of excess visceral abdominal fat in adults with HIV and lipodystrophy. Subsequent studies examined effects on liver fat, muscle area, and metabolic markers, with mixed findings for some endpoints. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes and effects on mortality remain uncertain because most trials were relatively short and focused on imaging-based fat measurements. Use in populations without HIV has been studied experimentally but is not part of the approved indication.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Peptide class | Synthetic GHRH analogue | 44 residues; N-terminal trans-3-hexenoyl group |
| First approval year | 2010 | United States; HIV-associated abdominal fat accumulation |
| Administration route | Subcutaneous injection | Abdominal site; clinician-administered or self-injected |
| Common synonyms | TH9507; tesamorelin acetate | Development code and acetate salt form |
| Originator | Canadian biotechnology firm | Original developer and regulatory sponsor |
在临床研究之外，特沙莫瑞林常被讨论为生长激素分泌促进剂，但这一说法需要限定。它并不等同于生长激素本身，也不属于普通减重药物。部分研究关注其减少腹部脂肪和改善脂质谱的潜力，另一些研究则关注胰岛素抵抗和 IGF-1 升高等信号。这些效应的临床意义仍在评估中，尚未形成统一结论。
特沙莫瑞林是一种合成肽，其序列与人生长激素释放激素的 44 个氨基酸形式相关。它在 N 端带有反式-3-己烯酰基修饰，这一改动可减缓二肽基肽酶 IV 的降解。该化合物属于生长激素释放激素受体激动剂，可刺激垂体释放生长激素。研究文献通常将其归入合成肽类药物，而非小分子化合物。
监管记录显示，特沙莫瑞林于 2010 年在美国首次获得批准，用于人类免疫缺陷病毒感染相关的脂肪营养不良患者。批准依据来自降低内脏脂肪的临床试验，而非体重或瘦体重的普遍改善。后续出现了不同制剂版本，但其核心适应症保持一致。关于长期心血管结局和死亡率影响，现有证据仍不充分。
Binding of tesamorelin to GHRH receptors on pituitary somatotroph cells triggers cyclic AMP signaling and the release of growth hormone into circulation. Because the peptide acts upstream of the growth hormone axis, its effects are partly mediated by hepatic insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) production. The pulsatile character of endogenous growth hormone secretion is preserved rather than replaced. Whether amplified signaling produces effects beyond those of native GHRH remains an area of ongoing investigation.
A documented effect of tesamorelin is a reduction in visceral adipose tissue in some study populations. Researchers have reported decreases in trunk fat measured by computed tomography alongside changes in lipid markers. The mechanism is thought to involve growth hormone-mediated lipolysis, though the precise contribution of direct versus indirect pathways is not fully resolved. Studies have generally examined defined groups over finite periods, so long-term outcomes are less well characterized. Findings have not been uniform across all trials.
Interest in this peptide developed because native GHRH has a short circulating lifetime. The N-terminal modification slows cleavage by dipeptidyl peptidase IV, an enzyme that removes the first two residues of many peptides and terminates their activity. Slower degradation means a longer window of receptor stimulation per administration. This design logic parallels other modified peptide hormones, where a small chemical change at a vulnerable site yields a more durable molecule without altering the core mechanism of action.
The peptide is synthesized chemically rather than extracted from biological sources. Solid-phase synthesis builds the chain from the C-terminus toward the N-terminus, after which the hexenoyl group is attached. Purity is typically assessed by high-performance liquid chromatography, and identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry. Regulatory review of the finished product focuses on these analytical controls, since small deviations in sequence or modification can change biological activity. Questions about long-term effects on the pituitary axis remain areas of continued investigation.
The HGSA is governed by a council, presided over by the president. The day-to-day strategic decision making is undertaken by an executive of council, consisting of the president, vice-president, treasurer and secretary. The Society employs a chief executive officer to run the administrative functions of the organization. Executive members of HGSA council are elected to their positions by popular vote from the membership. The remainder of the council is representative of the membership. The jurisdictions are represented by the chairpersons of HGSA branches, while the special interest groups are represented by their chairs. Council has the capacity to establish committees to undertake long-term high-level activities of the society. Longstanding committees include the Scientific Programme Committee; Annual Scientific Meeting Local Organising Committee; and the Education, Ethics and Social Issues Committee.
Conolidine is an indole alkaloid. Preliminary reports suggest that it could provide analgesic effects with few of the detrimental side-effects associated with opioid. Conolidine was first isolated in 2004 from the bark of the Tabernaemontana divaricata (crape jasmine) shrub which is used in traditional Chinese medicine. The first asymmetric total synthesis of conolidine was developed by Micalizio and coworkers in 2011. This synthetic route allows access to either enantiomer (mirror image) of conolidine via an early enzymatic resolution. Notably, evaluation of the synthetic material resulted in the discovery that both enantiomers of the synthetic compound show analgesic effects.
Nadifloxacin (INN, brand names Acuatim, Nadiflox, Nadoxin, Nadixa, Activon) is a topical fluoroquinolone antibiotic for the treatment of acne vulgaris. It is also used to treat bacterial skin infections.
President Biden signs a series of executive orders regarding climate change, including halting new oil and gas leases on public lands, procuring an all-electric federal vehicle fleet, and doubling offshore wind power by 2030. One of the 14 men accused in the Gretchen Whitmer kidnapping plot pleads guilty and agrees to testify against his co-defendants, with sentencing set for July 8. Investment funds report major losses after video game retailer GameStop's stock prices rise 900 times their record low. The next day, January 28, some financial services companies restrict the trade of stocks of several companies, including GameStop, triggering outrage online. January 31–February 3 – A major winter storm strikes the Northeastern United States, bringing nearly 3 feet (0.91 m) of snow to some areas, causing over 575,000 power outages, and killing six people.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Spread of Enlightenment ideals === Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions. The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire and a homegrown Spanish American Enlightenment. The political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors.
==== Microbiological use ==== Acetylcysteine can be used in Petroff's method of liquefaction and decontamination of sputum, in preparation for recovery of mycobacterium. It also displays significant antiviral activity against influenza A viruses. Acetylcysteine has bactericidal properties and breaks down bacterial biofilms of clinically relevant pathogens including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterobacter cloacae, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Klebsiella pneumoniae.
After several reports of adverse cardiovascular effects, the FDA banned dexfenfluramine in 1997. It appears that the 5-HT2B receptors, expressed in cardiac valves, are responsible for the valvulopathies reported from the use of fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine. The serotonin receptor agonist mCPP has a significant affinity for 5-HT2C receptors. mCPP patients experience multiple side effects due to non-selectivity over 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B receptors. The absence of the hypophagic (reduced food consumption) effect of mCPP in 5-HT2C receptor knockout mice suggests that this effect is mediated through 5-HT2C receptor activation. Repeated administration of mCPP to humans might result in decreased food intake and weight loss. mCPP is used as a prototype research tool for drug discovery of selective 5-HT2C receptor agonists.
Uterine prolapse is a form of pelvic organ prolapse in which the uterus and a portion of the upper vagina protrude into the vaginal canal and, in severe cases, through the opening of the vagina. It is most often caused by injury or damage to structures that hold the uterus in place within the pelvic cavity. Symptoms may include vaginal fullness, pain with sexual intercourse, difficulty urinating, and urinary incontinence. Risk factors include older age, pregnancy, vaginal childbirth, obesity, chronic constipation, and chronic cough. Prevalence, based on physical exam alone, is estimated to be approximately 14%. Diagnosis is based on a symptom history and physical examination, including pelvic examination. Preventive efforts include managing medical risk factors, such as chronic lung conditions, smoking cessation, and maintaining a healthy weight. Management of mild cases of uterine prolapse include pelvic floor therapy and pessaries. More severe cases may require surgical intervention - options include uterine suspension (hysteropexy); removal of the uterus (partial or supra-cervical hysterectomy) with surgical fixation of the vaginal vault to a nearby pelvic structure; or permanent surgical closure of the vagina (colpocleisis). Outcomes following management are generally positive with reported improvement in quality of life.
== Description == Lemna species grow as simple free-floating thalli on or just beneath the water surface. Most are small, not exceeding 5 mm in length, except Lemna trisulca, which is elongated and has a branched structure. Lemna thalli have a single root, which distinguishes this genus from the related genera Wolffia (lacks roots), Spirodela and Landoltia (have multiple roots). The plants grow mainly by vegetative reproduction: two daughter plants bud off from the adult plant. Lemna are flowering plants, and nearly all of them are known to reproduce sexually, flowering and producing seed under appropriate conditions. Certain species of Lemna (such as L. gibba) are long-day plants, while others (such as L. minor) are short-day plants. Owing to their vegetative reproduction strategies, Lemna species can quickly colonize open water bodies, particularly those with minimal surface flow. Removal of Lemna can be done through mechanical removal (e.g., skimming), biological controls (e.g., herbivorous fish), or treatment with aquatic herbicides. The rapid growth habit of Lemna presents applications in bioremediation of polluted waters, in municipal wastewater treatment, and as test organisms for environmental studies. Species of Lemna are also used as an expression system for economical production of complex biopharmaceuticals. Dried Lemna ("duckweed meal") can be used as livestock feed. It contains 25–45% protein (depending on the growth conditions), 4.4% fat, and 8–10% fibre, measured by dry weight.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Oligonucleotides are chemically synthesized using building blocks, protected phosphoramidites of natural or chemically modified nucleosides or, to a lesser extent, of non-nucleosidic compounds. The oligonucleotide chain assembly proceeds in the 3' to 5' direction by following a routine procedure referred to as a "synthetic cycle". Completion of a single synthetic cycle results in the addition of one nucleotide residue to the growing chain. A less than 100% yield of each synthetic step and the occurrence of side reactions set practical limits of the efficiency of the process. In general, oligonucleotide sequences are usually short (13–25 nucleotides long). The maximum length of synthetic oligonucleotides hardly exceeds 200 nucleotide residues. HPLC and other methods can be used to isolate products with the desired sequence.
=== Congressional testimony === In June 2025, Powell testified before Congress regarding the renovation project. Under questioning, he denied that the current plans included luxury features such as VIP dining rooms, special elevators, or new marble installations, stating that existing marble was being reused where possible and that certain earlier proposals had been eliminated as plans evolved. Following the hearing, the Federal Reserve published a “Frequently Asked Questions” document and released additional materials, including photographs and annotated planning documents, reaffirming Powell’s testimony and explaining changes to the project over time. Critics argued that Powell’s testimony conflicted with earlier planning documents, raising questions about whether his statements were misleading. Powell has maintained that his answers accurately reflected the project as it existed at the time of his testimony. In July 2025, U.S. Representative Anna Paulina Luna of Florida made a criminal referral to the Justice Department over Powell's testimony to the Senate Banking Committee the previous month.
methane CH4 – one carbon and 4 hydrogen ethane C2H6 – two carbon and 6 hydrogen propane C3H8 – three carbon and 8 hydrogen butane C4H10 – four carbon and 10 hydrogen pentane C5H12 – five carbon and 12 hydrogen hexane C6H14 – six carbon and 14 hydrogen heptane C7H16 – seven carbons and 16 hydrogen octane C8H18 – eight carbons and 18 hydrogen The first four names were derived from methanol, ether, propionic acid and butyric acid. Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix -ane to the appropriate numerical multiplier prefix with elision of any terminal vowel (-a or -o) from the basic numerical term. Hence, pentane, C5H12; hexane, C6H14; heptane, C7H16; octane, C8H18; etc. The numeral prefix is generally Greek; however, alkanes with a carbon atom count ending in nine, for example nonane, use the Latin prefix non-.
In February 2016, a Higher School of Economics university academic and Harvard University visiting scholar Yuval Weber wrote on E-International Relations that "the world is not entering Cold War II", stating that the current tensions and ideologies of Russia and Western countries are not similar to those of the original Cold War, that conflicts in Europe and the Middle East do not destabilise other areas geographically, and that Russia "is far more integrated with the outside world than the Soviet Union ever was". However, he suggested that Russia and the West were in the midst of a "mini-Cold War".
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a laboratory-made peptide of forty-four amino acids whose sequence matches human growth hormone-releasing hormone, with a modified amino terminus. The modification is a short unsaturated fatty acid chain attached to the first residue. This change slows enzymatic breakdown and lengthens the time the peptide stays active in circulation.
The clinical program was designed around HIV-associated lipodystrophy, a condition in which fat accumulates abnormally around the internal organs. Trials enrolled that specific population, so the evidence base covers it rather than the general population. Regulators approved the drug for the studied indication only, and promotion outside it is not permitted.
Growth hormone therapy supplies the finished hormone directly, while this peptide acts upstream and asks the pituitary to secrete its own. That difference means the response depends on a functioning pituitary and on the body's normal feedback loops. It also means the circulating hormone profile is pulsatile rather than a flat, injected level.
It is a synthetic peptide analog of human growth hormone-releasing hormone. It is used clinically to reduce excess visceral abdominal fat in adults with HIV-associated lipodystrophy. It works by stimulating pituitary growth hormone release.